Dealing with predictable and unpredictable temperatures in a climate change context: the case of parasitoids and their hosts

ABSTRACT The Earth's climate is changing at a rapid pace. To survive in increasingly fluctuating and unpredictable environments, species can either migrate or evolve through local adaptation, plasticity and/or bet-hedging. For small ectotherm insects, like parasitoids their hosts, phenotypic bet-hedging could be critical strategies for population persistence response to immediate, intense temperature changes. Here, we focus on studies evaluating responses variable predictable thermal conditions (for which favoured) environments favoured), both within between host parasitoid generations. We then address the effects of temperatures host–parasitoid interactions, potential cascading food web, as well biological control services. conclude our review by proposing road map designing experiments assess if adaptive strategies, disentangle how affect evolution these two hosts.